A3 Mitilinia. A4 Kira Gorgena. A5 Mish Mash. A6 El jinete. B2 Ostamoulis. B3 Bishvili Hachi Tova. B4 Elavata Metra.
Between 1908 and 1913, Congress debated whether to make a water resource available or preserve a wilderness when the growing city of San Francisco, California proposed building a dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley to provide a steady water supply. The Hetch Hetchy Valley was within Yosemite National Park and protected by the federal government, leaving it up to Congress to decide the valley’s fate. National opinion divided between giving San Francisco the right to dam the valley and preserving the valley from development.
At the heart of the debate was the conflict between conservationists, who held that the environment should be used in a conscientious manner to benefit society, and preservationists, who believed that nature should be protected, saved from human interference. Siding with the conservationists, San Francisco citizens argued that the reservoir was necessary for the health of their city. On the other side, preservationists, led by John Muir, argued that Congress should protect the Hetch Hetchy Valley from destruction. Muir and his allies believed that nature should be enjoyed for its beauty, and not merely used for its resources.
Hundreds of individuals and organizations from across the country submitted petitions to Congress regarding the valley. These petitions, some of which are included below, bear witness to the birth of environmental activism as citizens weighed in, expressing multiple opinions about the proper use of National Park land and the relationship between local interests and national values.
In the end, Congress passed legislation that enabled the creation of a dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley. President Woodrow Wilson signed the bill into law on December 19, 1913. Although the preservationists lost this battle, the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley raised public awareness about the importance of preserving nature, and helped justify the creation of the National Park Service in 1916.
More Information:
- For suggestions on how to use these documents in a classroom, visit Hetch Hetchy: Congress and the Environment.
- To learn more about the Hetch Hetchy Valley, visit Yosemite National Park.
- To learn about the devastating earthquake to San Francisco in 1906, visit San Francisco Earthquake, 1906.
- If you have problems viewing these images please contact [email protected].
Top: taken in the early 1900s before the O'Shaughnessy Dam was constructed, shows the Hetch Hetchy Valley and the Tuolumne River, looking east. Wapama Falls is on the left, on the right. Bottom: A modern photo, taken from much the same vantage point, shows the submergence of the valley floor under the waters of the reservoir.Floor elevation3,783 ft (1,153 m)Length3 mi (4.8 km)Width0.5 mi (0.80 km)Area1,200 acres (490 ha)Depth1,800 ft (550 m)GeologyTypeGlacialAge10,000–15,000 yearsGeographyLocation,:RiversHetch Hetchy is the name of a valley, a reservoir and a water system in in the.
The glacial Hetch Hetchy Valley lies in the northwestern part of and is drained by the. For thousands of years before the arrival of settlers from the United States in the 1850s, the valley was inhabited by Native Americans who practiced subsistence hunting-gathering. During the late 19th century, the valley was renowned for its natural beauty – often compared to that of – but also targeted for the development of water supply for irrigation and municipal interests.In 1923, the was completed on the Tuolumne River, flooding the entire valley under the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir. The dam and reservoir are the centerpiece of the Hetch Hetchy Project, which in 1934 began to deliver water 167 miles (269 km) west to and its client municipalities in the greater. Contents.Geography Before damming, the high granite formations produced a valley with an average depth of 1,800 ft (550 m) and a maximum depth of over 3,000 ft (910 m); the length of the valley was 3 mi (4.8 km) with a width ranging from an eighth to a half of a mile (0.2 to 0.8 km).
The valley floor consisted of roughly 1,200 acres (490 ha) of meadows fringed by pine forest, through which meandered the Tuolumne River and numerous tributary streams., at 5,772 ft (1,759 m), is a massive rock spire on the south side of the Hetch Hetchy Valley., at 6,197 ft (1,889 m), lies directly north of it. The locations of these two formations roughly correspond with those of and seen from in Yosemite Valley. A broad, low rocky outcrop situated between Kolana Rock and Hetch Hetchy Dome divided the former meadow in two distinct sections. 840 ft (260 m), is located on the north side of the valley.The valley is fed by the, and numerous smaller streams which collectively drain a of 459 sq mi (1,190 km 2). In its natural state, the valley floor was marshy and often flooded in the spring when snow melt in the high Sierra cascaded down the Tuolumne River and backed up behind the narrow gorge which is now spanned by O'Shaughnessy Dam. The entire valley is now flooded under an average 300 ft (91 m) of water behind the dam, although it occasionally reemerges in droughts, as it did in 1955, 1977 and 1991.Upstream from the valley lies the, while the smaller Poopenaut Valley is directly downstream from O'Shaughnessy Dam. The Hetch Hetchy Road drops into the valley at the dam, but all points east of there are roadless, and accessible only to hikers and equestrians.
The O'Shaughnessy Dam is near Yosemite's western boundary, but the long, narrow, fingerlike reservoir stretches eastward for about 8 miles (13 km)., at 1,080 ft (330 m), and, at 840 ft (260 m) – both among the tallest waterfalls in – are both located in Hetch Hetchy Valley. Is located farther southeast, on Rancheria Creek. Formerly, a 'small but noisy' waterfall and natural pool existed on the Tuolumne River marked the upper entrance to Hetch Hetchy Valley, informally known as Tuolumne Fall (not to be confused with a similarly named waterfall several miles upriver near ).
The waterfall on the Tuolumne is now submerged under Hetch Hetchy Reservoir.Geology The Hetch Hetchy Valley began as a V-shaped river canyon cut out by the ancestral Tuolumne River. About one million years ago, the extensive Sherwin glaciation widened, deepened and straightened river valleys along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, including Hetch Hetchy, Yosemite Valley, and farther to the south. During the, the Tioga Glacier formed from extensive icefields in the upper Tuolumne River watershed; between 110,000 and 10,000 years ago Hetch Hetchy Valley was sculpted into its present shape by repeated advance and retreat of the ice, which also removed extensive deposits that may have accumulated in the valley since the Sherwin period. At maximum extent, Tioga Glacier may have been 60 mi (97 km) long and up to 4,000 ft (1,200 m) thick, filling Hetch Hetchy Valley to the brim and spilling over the sides, carving out the present rugged plateau country to the north and southwest. When the glacier retreated for the final time, sediment-laden meltwater deposited thick layers of, forming the flat alluvial floodplain of the valley floor.Compared with Yosemite Valley, the walls of Hetch Hetchy are smoother and rounder because it was glaciated to a greater extent.
This is because the Tuolumne catchment basin above Hetch Hetchy is almost three times as large as the catchment area of the above Yosemite, allowing a greater volume of ice to form. Flora and fauna.
The Hetch Hetchy Valley, California, late 19th centuryHetch Hetchy is home to a diverse array of plants and animals., and grow in abundance. Many examples of red-barked can be seen along the Hetch Hetchy Road.
Spring and early summer bring wildflowers including,. Seventeen species of inhabit the Hetch Hetchy area, including the largest North American bat, the.Before damming, the valley floor contained abundant stands of black oaks, and bordering the meadows, with, and in the along the Tuolumne River. The valley's abundant plants provided nourishment for,. Due to large cataracts on the Tuolumne River upstream, Hetch Hetchy Valley may have been in the uppermost range for native in the river.Due to its abundant wetlands and stream pools, Hetch Hetchy was notorious among early travelers for becoming infested with mosquitoes in the summertime. Said San Francisco resident William Denman in 1918, 'The first time I went into the Hetch Hetchy the mosquitoes were intolerable. They would light upon a man's blue shirt and turn it brown, and were voracious as mosquitoes would be.'
History Indigenous peoples People have lived in Hetch Hetchy Valley for over 6,000 years. Were prominent before the 1850s when the first settlers from the United States arrived in the Sierra Nevada.
During summer, people of the and came to Hetch Hetchy from the in the west and the in the east. The valley provided an escape from the summer heat of the lowlands.
They hunted, and gathered seeds and edible plants to furnish themselves winter food, trade items, and materials for art and ceremonial objects. Today, descendants of these people still use, and other plants for a variety of uses including baskets, medicines, and string.Meadow plants unavailable in the lowlands were particularly valuable resources to these tribes. For thousands of years, Native Americans subjected the valley to controlled bushfires, which prevented forest from taking over the valley meadows.
Periodic clearing of the valley provided ample space for the growth of the grasses and shrubs they relied on, as well as additional room for large game animals such as deer to browse. In the 19th century, the first white visitors to the valley did not realize that Hetch Hetchy's extensive meadows were the product of millennia of management by Native Americans; instead they believed 'the valley was purely a product of ancient geological forces (or divine intervention). This was fundamental to its allure as a destination and subject.'
The valley's name may be derived from the Miwok word hatchhatchie, which means 'edible grasses' or 'magpie'. It is likely that the edible grass was. Of the Yosemite Valley's tribe claimed that Hetch Hetchy was Miwok for 'Valley of the Two Trees', referring to a pair of that once stood at the head of Hetch Hetchy. Miwok names are still used for features, including Tueeulala Fall, Wapama Fall, and Kolana Rock.While its cousin Yosemite Valley to the south had permanent Miwok settlements, Hetch Hetchy was only seasonally inhabited.
This was likely because of Hetch Hetchy's narrow outlet, which in years of heavy snowmelt created a bottleneck in the Tuolumne River and the subsequent flooding of the valley floor. Exploration and early development In the early 1850s, a mountain man Nathan Screech became the first non-Native American to enter the valley. Local legend attributes the modern name Hetch Hetchy to Screech's initial arrival in the valley, during which he observed the Native Americans 'cooking a variety of grass covered with edible seeds', which they called 'hatch hatchy' or 'hatchhatchie'. Screech reported that the valley was bitterly disputed between the 'Pah Utah Indians' (Paiute) and 'Big Creek Indians' (Miwok), and witnessed several fights in which the Paiute appeared to be the dominant tribe. About 1853, his brother Joseph Screech (credited in some accounts for the original discovery of the valley) blazed the first trail from, a mining camp near present-day, for 38 mi (61 km) northeast to Hetch Hetchy Valley.
Hetch Hetchy Side Canyon, I, c. 1908During this time, the upper Tuolumne River, including Hetch Hetchy Valley, was visited by prospectors attracted by the. Miners did not stay in the area for long, however, as richer deposits occurred further south along the and in the Big Oak Flat area. After the valley's native inhabitants were driven out by the newcomers, it was used by ranchers, many of whom were former miners, to graze livestock. Animals were principally driven along Joseph Screech's trail from Big Oak Flat to Hetch Hetchy.
Its meadows provided abundant feed for 'thousands of head of sheep and cattle that entered lean and lank in the spring, but left rolling fat and hardly able to negotiate the precipitous and difficult defiles out of the mountains in the fall.' In 1867, of the conducted the first survey of the valley. Hoffman observed a meadow 'well timbered and affording good grazing', and noted the valley had a milder climate than Yosemite Valley, hence the abundance of ponderosa pine and gray pine. The valley was slowly becoming known for its natural beauty, but it was never a popular tourist destination because of extremely poor access and the location of the famous Yosemite Valley just twenty miles to the south.
Those who did visit it were enchanted by its scenery, but encountered difficulties with the primitive conditions and, in summertime, swarms of mosquitoes., and were known for their landscapes that drew tourists to the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Bierstadt described the valley as 'smaller than the more famous valley. But it presents many of the same features in his scenery and is quite as beautiful.' When Yosemite Valley became part of a state park in 1864, Hetch Hetchy received no such designation. As the grazing of livestock damaged native plants in the Hetch Hetchy Valley, mountaineer and naturalist pressed for the protection of both valleys under a single national park. Muir, who himself had briefly worked as a shepherd in Hetch Hetchy, was known for calling sheep 'hoofed locusts' because of their environmental impact.
Muir's friend of the politically influential and several other prominent figures were inspired by Muir's work and helped to get Yosemite National Park established by October 1, 1890. However, ranchers who had previously owned land in the new park continued their use of Hetch Hetchy Valley – a 'sheep-grazing free-for-all that threatened to denude the High Sierra meadows' – before disputes over state and private properties in respect to national park boundaries were finally settled in the early 1900s.Interest in using the valley as a water source or reservoir dates back as far as the 1850s, when the Tuolumne Valley Water Company proposed developing water storage there for irrigation. By the 1880s, San Francisco was looking to Hetch Hetchy water as a fix for its outdated and unreliable water system. The city would try repeatedly to acquire water rights to Hetch Hetchy, including in 1901, 1903 and 1905, but was continually rebuffed because of conflicts with irrigation districts that had senior water rights on the Tuolumne River, and because of the valley's national park status. Main article:In 1906, after and subsequent fire that devastated San Francisco, the inadequacy of the city's water system was made tragically clear.San Francisco applied to the to gain water rights to Hetch Hetchy, and in 1908 President Theodore Roosevelt's Secretary of the Interior, granted San Francisco the rights to development of the Tuolumne River. This provoked a seven-year struggle with the environmental group, led. Muir observed: Dam Hetch Hetchy!
As well dam for water-tanks the people's cathedrals and churches, for no holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man.Proponents of the dam replied that out of multiple sites considered by San Francisco, Hetch Hetchy had the 'perfect architecture for a reservoir', with pristine water, lack of development or private property, a steep-sided and flat-floored profile that would maximize the amount of water stored, and a narrow outlet ideal for placement of a dam. They claimed the valley was not unique and would be even more beautiful with a lake. Muir predicted that this lake would create an unsightly 'bathtub ring' around its perimeter, caused by the water's destruction of growth on the canyon walls, which would inevitably be visible at low lake levels.Since the valley was within, an act of was needed to authorize the project.
Congress passed and President signed the in 1913, which permitted the flooding of the valley under the conditions that power and water derived from the river could only be used for public interests. Ultimately, the city sold hydropower from the dam to the (PG&E), which led to decades of legal wrangling and controversy.Work on the Hetch Hetchy Project began in 1914. The 68 mi (109 km) was constructed to link the with Hetch Hetchy Valley, allowing for direct rail shipment of construction materials from San Francisco to the dam site. Construction of O'Shaughnessy Dam began in 1919 and was finished in 1923, with the reservoir first filling in May of that year. The dam was then 227 feet (69 m) high; its present height of 312 feet (95 m) was achieved only later, in 1938. On October 28, 1934 – twenty years after the beginning of construction on the Hetch Hetchy project – a crowd of 20,000 San Franciscans gathered to celebrate the arrival of the first Hetch Hetchy water in the city.The Early Intake (Lower Cherry) Powerhouse began commercial operation five years before the O'Shaughnessy Dam was completed.
The first Moccasin Powerhouse in began commercial operation in 1925 followed by the Holm Powerhouse in 1960 (the same month the Early Intake Powerhouse was taken out of service). In 1967 the Robert C. Kirkwood Powerhouse started commercial operation followed by a New Moccasin Powerhouse in 1969 when the Old Moccasin Powerhouse was taken out of service. Finally, in 1988, a third generator was added to the Kirkwood Powerhouse.
Hetch Hetchy Project. Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct:BeginsEndsMaintained byCharacteristicsTotal length167 mi (269 km)Capacity366 cu ft/s (10.4 m 3/s)HistoryConstruction start1914Opened24 October 1934References.Note that map above only shows Bay Area portion of aqueduct.Hetch Hetchy Valley serves as the primary water source for the and several surrounding municipalities in the greater. The dam and reservoir, combined with a series of aqueducts, tunnels, and as well as eight other storage dams, comprise a system known as the Hetch Hetchy Project, which provides 80% of the water supply for 2.6 million people. The project is operated by the.
The city must pay a lease of $30,000 per year for the use of Hetch Hetchy, which sits on federal land. The aqueduct delivers an average of 265,000 acre⋅ft (327,000 dam 3) of water each year, or 31,900,000 cu ft (900,000 m 3) per day, to residents of San Francisco and, and Counties.As completed, O'Shaughnessy Dam is 910 feet (280 m) long, spanning the valley at its narrow outlet. The dam contains 675,000 cu yd (516,000 m 3) of concrete.
The Hetch Hetchy Reservoir created by the dam has a capacity of 360,400 acre⋅ft (0.4445 km 3), with a maximum area of 1,972 acres (798 ha) and a maximum depth of 306 feet (93 m). From Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, the water flows through the Canyon and Mountain Tunnels to Kirkwood and, which have capacities of 124 and 110, respectively. An additional hydroelectric system comprising, and the Holm Powerhouse is also part of the Hetch Hetchy Project, adding another 169 megawatts of generating capacity. The entire system produces about 1.7 billion per year, enough to meet 20% of San Francisco's electricity needs.After passing through the powerhouses, Hetch Hetchy water flows into the 167 mi (269 km) Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct which travels across the Central Valley.
Upon reaching the Bay Area near the city of, the aqueduct splits into four pipelines. These are called Bay Division Pipelines (BDPL) 1, 2, 3, and 4, with nominal pipeline diameters of 60, 66, 78, and 96 inches (1.5, 1.7, 2.0 and 2.4 m, respectively). All four pipelines cross the. Pipelines 1 and 2 cross the San Francisco Bay to the south of the, while pipelines 3 and 4 run to the south of the bay. In the Bay Area, Hetch Hetchy water is stored in local facilities including,. Pipelines 3 and 4 end at the, a small park that contains classical architectural elements which celebrate the water delivery.Water from Hetch Hetchy is some of the cleanest municipal water in the United States; San Francisco is one of six U.S. Cities not required by law to filter its tap water, although the water is disinfected by and, since 2011, exposure to.
The water quality is high because of the unique geology of the upper Tuolumne River drainage basin, which consists mostly of bare granite; as a result, the rivers feeding Hetch Hetchy Reservoir have extremely low loads of sediments and nutrients. The watershed is also strictly protected, so swimming and boating are prohibited at the reservoir (although fishing is permitted at the reservoir and in the rivers which feed it), a measure which is considered unusual for US lakes outside the region. In 2018, the of the Trump administration began to consider a proposal to allow limited boating on the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir for the first time, supported by the advocacy group which argued that 'San Francisco received Hetch Hetchy's benefits long ago, but the American people have not.' Proposed restoration Arguments for The battle over Hetch Hetchy Valley continues today between those who wish to retain the dam and reservoir, and those who wish to drain the reservoir and return Hetch Hetchy Valley to its former state. Those in favor of dam removal have pointed out that many actions by San Francisco since 1913 have been in violation of the Raker Act, which explicitly stated that power and water from Hetch Hetchy could not be sold to private interests. Hydroelectric power generated from the Hetch Hetchy project is largely sold to Bay Area customers through a private power company, (PG&E). San Francisco was able to accomplish this in 1925 by claiming it had run out of funds to extend the Hetch Hetchy transmission line all the way to the city.
The terminus of the incomplete line was 'conveniently located next to a PG&E substation', which connected to PG&E's private line which in turn bridged the gap to San Francisco. The city justified this as a temporary measure, but no attempt to follow through with completing the municipal grid was ever made. Peter Byrne of has stated that 'the plain language of the Raker Act itself and experts who are familiar with the act (and have no stake in city politics) all agree: The city of San Francisco is not in violation of the Raker Act.' , in the late 1930s, said there was a violation of the Raker Act, but he and the city reached an agreement in 1945. In 2015, Restore Hetch Hetchy filed a complaint arguing that the construction of the dam had violated a provision in the constitution of California about water use, but the lawsuit was rejected by an appeals court and later the California State Supreme Court. Albert Bierstadt, Hetch Hetchy Valley From Road, c.
1870Preservation groups including the Sierra Club and state that draining Hetch Hetchy would open the valley back up to recreation, a right that should be provided to the American people because the reservoir is within the legal boundaries of a national park. They acknowledge that a concerted effort would have to be made to control the introduction of wildlife and tourism back into the valley in order to prevent destabilization of the ecosystem, and that it might be decades or even centuries before the valley could be returned to natural conditions.In 1987, the idea of razing the O'Shaughnessy Dam gained an adherent in, then of the under. Hodel called for a study of the effect of tearing down the dam.
The concluded that two years after draining the valley, grasses would cover most of its floor and within 10 years, clumps of cone-bearing trees and some oaks would take root. Within 50 years, vegetative cover would be complete except for exposed rocky areas. In this unmanaged scenario, where nature is left to take hold in the valley, eventually a forest would grow, rather than the meadow being restored. However, the same NPS study also finds that with intensive management, an outcome in which 'the entire valley would appear much as it did before construction of the reservoir' is feasible.The dam would not have to be completely removed; rather, it would only be necessary to cut a hole through the base in order to drain the water and restore natural flows of the Tuolumne River. Most of the dam would remain in place, both to avoid the enormous costs of demolition and removal, and to serve as a monument for the workers who built it. The water storage provided at Hetch Hetchy could be transferred into Lake Don Pedro lower on the Tuolumne River by raising the 30 ft (9.1 m).
Water could be diverted into the Kirkwood and Moccasin Powerhouses using lower-impact, providing power generation on a seasonal basis, and the enlarged height at Don Pedro would also increase power generation there. Furthermore, the removal of O'Shaughnessy Dam would not require costly sediment control measures, as would be typical on most dam removal projects, because of the high quality of the Tuolumne River water – in the first 90 years since its construction, only around 2 in (5.1 cm) of sediment had been deposited in Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, much less than most other dams. A 2019 study commissioned by Restore Hetch Hetchy argued that draining the reservoir and equipping the valley with a tourism infrastructure comparable to that of (which receives around 100 times as many visitors annually than Hetch Hetchy's 44,000) could result in a 'recreational value' of up to $178 million per year, or possibly an overall economic value of up to $100 billion. Arguments against Those in opposition of dam removal state that demolishing O'Shaughnessy Dam would take away a valuable source of clean, renewable hydroelectric power in the Kirkwood and Moccasin powerhouses; even if measures such as seasonal water diversion into the powerhouses were employed, it would only make up for a fraction of the original power production.
The remaining deficit would likely have to be replaced by polluting fossil fuel generation. The removal of the dam would be extremely costly, at least $3–10 billion, and the transport of the demolished material away from the dam site along the narrow, winding Hetch Hetchy Road would be a logistical nightmare with possible environmental impacts. Most importantly, San Francisco would lose its source of high-quality mountain water, and would have to depend on lower-quality water from other reservoirs – which would require costly filtration and re-engineering of the aqueduct system – to meet its needs. Tuolumne River below O'Shaughnessy DamThe economic wisdom of removing the dam has been frequently questioned. Some observers, such as (Director of the ), stated that Hodel had political motives in proposing the study. The imputed motive was to divide the environmental movement: to see residents of the strongly Democratic city of San Francisco coming out against an environmental issue., the of San Francisco at the time, said in a story in 1987: 'All this is for an expanded campground?.
It's dumb, dumb, dumb.' Hodel, now retired, is still a strong proponent of restoring Hetch Hetchy Valley and now-Senator Feinstein is still strongly against restoration.
The proposed allocating $7 million to studying the removal of the dam in the 2007 National Park Service budget. Dianne Feinstein opposed this allocation, saying, 'I will do all I can to make sure it isn't included in the final bill. We're not going to remove this dam, and the funding is unnecessary.' Opponents of dam removal have pointed out that the flooding of the Hetch Hetchy Valley has also deterred the crowds that overrun other areas of Yosemite National Park. Indeed, Hetch Hetchy today remains the least visited area of the park.
Karin Klein has described Yosemite Valley as 'so crammed. That it looks more like a ripstop ghetto than the site of a nature experience.' However, she does support breaching the dam once it has reached the end of its lifespan, and not replacing it.In November 2012, San Francisco voters soundly rejected Proposition F, which would have required the City to conduct an $8 million study on how the flooded valley could be drained and restored to its former state. The proposed study would also have been required to identify potential replacements for the water storage capacity and hydroelectric power production. See also. Retrieved 2013-05-26. ^.
San Francisco Water Power Sewer. Retrieved 2013-05-23. ^ Muir, John (1912).
The Yosemite. New York: The Century Co. Restore Hetch Hetchy.
Archived from on 2013-07-19. Retrieved 2013-05-30. ^ Hoffmann, Charles F. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco: CAS. 3 (5): 368–370. (PDF).
Retrieved 2013-05-26. The Pulitzer Prizes. ^ This article incorporates from the document: (PDF). Retrieved 2013-05-23. Yosemite National Park / Hetch Hetchy, California, USA. World of Waterfalls., p. 15. Requiem for Hetch Hetchy Valley.
Sierra Club., p. 80–83. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFHuber2007. ^ Huber, N. Bulletin 1595. Archived from on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2013-05-26., p. 84.
Sfn error: no target: CITEREFHuber2007., pp. 87–90. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFMatthes1930., p. 419. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFWohlforth2004. Patagonia Environmentalism Essay. The Ecological Angler.
(1918). Retrieved 27 May 2013., p. 74. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones2010. ^, p. 75. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones2010., p. 92–94. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFBibby2006.
Farquhar, Francis P. Retrieved 2006-09-09. ^, p. 14., p. 4., p. 13. ^. Yosemite Gazette. Archived from on 2016-03-04.
Retrieved 2013-05-26. Hetch Hetchy: Preservation or Public Utility. In Time and Place., p. 158. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFWhitney1874. ^. Sierra Nevada Geotourism MapGuide. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
^, p. 157. Sfn error: no target: CITEREFWhitney1874., p. 17. United States Army Corps of Engineers (1913). United States Government Printing Office. P. 31., p. 19., pp. 22–23. Yosemite National Park.
National Park Service. Retrieved 2013-05-28. ^, p. 23. Perrottet, Tony (July 2008). Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2013-06-01., pp. 26–27.
Sfn error: no target: CITEREFRighter. ^. Retrieved 2013-05-31. United States Department of the Interior. 'Proceedings Before The Secretary Of The Interior In Re Use Of Hetch Hetchy Reservoir Site, In The Yosemite National Park, By The City Of San Francisco, May 11, 1908'. United States Government Printing Office.
^ Hanson, Jason L. Center of the American West. Retrieved 2013-05-30. Davies, Leslie T. Humboldt State University.
Retrieved 2013-05-31. Rogers, Paul (2012-09-30). San Jose Mercury News.
Tuolumne County Historical Society. Buchanan, Paul D. (April 2, 2001). San Mateo Daily Journal.
Retrieved 2010-09-23. ^. San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. Archived from on 2013-08-23.
Retrieved 2013-05-31. Upton, John (6 January 2012). The New York Times. Retrieved 21 May 2013., p. 241. Retrieved 2013-05-31. ^ (PDF). Archived from (PDF) on 2014-07-02.
Retrieved 2013-05-26. California Energy Almanac. Archived from on 2013-05-20. Retrieved 2013-05-23. Eidinger, J. 'Seismic Retrofit of the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct at the Hayward Fault'. Pipelines 2001.
San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. Retrieved 2013-06-01. San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. Worth, Katie (2011-07-18). San Francisco Examiner. Archived from on 2011-11-01.
Retrieved 2013-05-31. (PDF).
National Park Service. Retrieved 2013-05-31. ^. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
Sahagun, Louis (2019-10-23). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2019-10-23. Browne, Brian. Reason Foundation. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
Redmond, Tim (2004-05-26). Clovis Free Press. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
Byrne, Peter (2001-04-04). San Francisco Weekly., p. 185. ^ Thomas, Gregory (2019-08-01). San Francisco Chronicle.
Retrieved 2019-10-01. De Carion, Denis. University of California Davis.
Retrieved 2013-05-26. (PDF). Retrieved 2013-05-25. Philp, Tom (2004-08-19). The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2013-06-02.
Riegelhuth, Richard; Botti, S.; Keay, J. (PDF). (PDF). Backcountry Pictures.
Retrieved 2013-05-25. Nash, J. Madeline (2005-07-11). TIME Magazine. Biba, Erin (2012-12-11). Popular Mechanics. The valley would be covered in about two inches of sediment, which is unusual to Hetch Hetchy; many dams collect large amounts of sediment, however the Tuolumne riverbed is mostly granite and erodes slowly.
(PDF). Environmental Defense Fund.
Retrieved 2013-05-25. California Department of Water Resources. Retrieved 2013-05-25. Earth Island Journal. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
Onishi, Norimitsu (2012-09-09). New York Times. Retrieved 2013-05-26. Bowe, Rebecca (2011-08-09).
'Ecological rewind: Environmentalists want to tear down O'Shaughnessy Dam and restore the Hetch Hetchy Valley, but does their plan hold water?' San Francisco Bay Guardian. Pope, Carl (November–December 1987).
Sierra Magazine. Sierra Club: 34–38. Morain, Dan; Houston, Paul (1987-08-07). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2013-05-25., p. 121.
Sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlennon2009. Doyle, Michael (2007-02-08). 'Hetch Hetchy debate reborn'. Restore Hetch Hetchy. Archived from on 2013-07-04.
Retrieved 2013-07-02. Klein, Karin (2012-08-15). Los Angeles Times.
Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2017-04-03. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
Wildermuth, John (2012-11-10). 'Hetch Hetchy fight not over, activists say'. Rogers, Paul (2012-11-12). Mercury News. Retrieved 2013-05-25.